Are pro athetes paid too much Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Are pro athetes paid too much - Essay Example It shall discuss this issue using evaluations published by experts on the topic; a thorough assessment of professional athletes’ salaries shall be made based on accepted standards in the field of economics and sports. Professional athletes are reportedly paid millions of dollars annually. Salaries of professional athletes from the NBA, MLB, NHL, and the NFL seem to increase per year and for each athlete. The latest figures from the 2007-2008 sports season reveal that Alex Rodriguez was paid $28 million; Jason Giambi, $24 million; Shaquille O’Neal, $21 million; Kevin Garnett, $23.8 million; Julius Peppers, $14.1 million; Carson Palmer, $13.5 million; Scott Gomez, $10 million; and Daniel Briere, $10 million (Gilmartin â€Å"Articles†). Based on 2002 statistics, basketball players have an annual salary of $2.2 million, with 220,000 as minimum starting salary; baseball players register an annual salary of $1.37 million with $109,000 as minimum starting salary; hockey players have an annual salary of $892,000 and 125,000 as minimum starting salary; and finally football players register an annual salary of $795,000 and 131,000 starting salary (Strategic Reading, p. 26). The figures above seem to be lopsided when they are compared or set side by side with annual salaries of teachers, police officers, fire fighters, or even doctors. Many critics weigh in on this issue as they evaluate the factors which contribute to such high salaries and whether or not such salaries are deserved. An article which dates back as far back as in the 1990s attempted to evaluate the issue by weighing in both sides of the argument. On one hand, it contends that professional athletes are worth their high salaries because sports consumerism drives or dictates the terms of this market. This article cites Larry Lundy, a sports marketing director at Walt Disney who contends that there is only a limited number of superstar

Political And Social Changes And Russian Revolution History Essay

Political And Social Changes And Russian Revolution History Essay Russia is a country with a great history. Back to the past, Russia existed under the Tsars since the 1533 when the country was dominated by the figure of Ivan the Terrible till the subversion of the Nicolas II on the time of Revolution in 1917. By the 1917 the bond between the Tsar and majority of Russian people had been broken. It was the second largest contiguous empire the world has ever seen. The underlying causes of the Russian Revolution 1917 are rooted deep in Russians history. During the 19th century and early 20th century various movements aimed at overthrowing the oppressive government that were staged at different times by students, workers, the members of the nobility and peasants. Two of these unsuccessful movements were the 1825 revolt against Nicolas I and the Revolution on 1905, both of which were attempts to establish a constitutional monarchy. Nicolas II (1894-1917) marked the final struggle of the Romanov autocracy to keep itself in power, despite the mounting pressure for reform from the liberal intelligentsia, the urban middle classes, blue-collar workers, and peasants. The basic dilemma of the regime stemmed from the fact that two main goals were incompatible: the creation of a modern, industrial society while retaining the autocracy. Also, Russians badly organized and unsuccessful involvement in World War I (1914-1918) added popular discontent with the governments corruption and inefficiency. In 1917 these events resulted in the fall of the czarist government and the establishment of the Bolshevik Party, a radical offshoot of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party as the ruling power. It is interesting to look at this particular case study as Revolution broke up the basis of the Russian history of the governing the state and brought mass of changes to the society and politics. It has toppled the Tsar and led to a Bolshevik regime played a decisive role in shaping world history in the twentieth century. The Russian Revolution of 1917, at once compact and comprehensive, puts the events of that fateful year into historical perspective. Revolution gave rise to the Soviet States, the era of the Stalin and the dawning of glasnost. This is a history without compromise, sometimes agonising in its cruelty and hardship, sometimes heroic and courageous in its battle against fate, but above all it is the story of a nation in the making; a nation we live with today. Questions which are particular interesting in this case are political and cultural context in which Revolution occurred. Also, questions how this kind of revolution was organised and did they had leaders of the movement and who they were, are central in this case study. In addition, it is specifically important to look at the outcomes of the Revolution. According to the Theda Skocpol States and Social Revolutions: A Comparative Analysis of France, Russia, and China (1979) the preconditions of all three revolutions were similar but their outcomes were different. An overview of the historical, political and cultural context in which the movement/revolution occurred/is occurring, with a reflection on how this context shaped the movement/revolution you are looking at. Revolutions are the locomotive of history. Karl Marx. During the centuries theory of revolution had been developed especially since the new type of revolution, communist revolution. The theory of Russian Revolution was Marxs materialist conception of history. Marx was interested in the way why revolutions occur and describe it as the economic and state collapse brought by the incapacity of the productive system to develop further and to meet demands of the working class.  [1]  In relation to Marx theory, Hobsbawm (1986) expressed revolution in the context of the historical transformation of the states. Also, Skocpol (Rentier State, 1982: 265) defines the social revolutions as rapid, basic transformation of a countrys state and class structures, and of its dominant ideology. Entire waves of the social movements arise from broad historical development. The relationship between autocracy and backwardness stood at the heart of Russian historical development in the 19th century. For the centuries, autocratic ruled the country and majority of Russian population lived under severe economic and social conditions. The reign of Nicolas I (1825- 1855) was based firmly on the principles of autocracy. First revolt against Tsar derives from a group of military officials in 14th December 1825.  [2]  Decembrist aimed to replace autocracy with a democratic political and social order by means of the coup detat. Another unsuccessful revolt of social and political disagreement was in 1905. Fist Revolution in 1905-1907 was cause by the aggravated of internal conditions of the state as a result of the unsuccessful war against Japan which also, activated left wing in the state. Complex disagreements arose between the population as a result of the capitalism development, a nd its immaturity. 9th January, Bloody Sunday- massive demonstration of the working class gathered to present a petition for reform to the Winter Palace. The guards opened fire and hundreds man and women were killed. Such an event become known and in every lands end become strikes. In 17th of October in 1905 came Manifesto with new rights for the Russian people, which invoke constitutional illusion and brought cleavage to the Revolution. Also, Revolution wave become less after the suppression of the Decembrists revolt. Trotsky once called Revolution 1905 as a dress rehearsal for 1917.  [3]   The direct cause of the February Revolution of 1917 was the collapse of the czarist regime under the gigantic tension of World War I (1914-1918). In comparison with France and China revolution, which occurred during the formal peach, Russian Revolution developed under direct result of defeat war. After the Japanese war Russian army thoroughly reorganised, had more artillery and excellent spirit. However, in the end of the 1916 Russian fatal statistics of the death people ruined the morale of the army, more than four million people were killed and around one a huff soldiers were in presentment  [4]  . The army was ripe for revolution. In addition, the countrys economy began to display alarming signs of weakness, which made it unable for the Russia to maintain the war effort against powerful, industrialized Germany. Inflation, slow at first, soon gained momentum, and ricers soared. Russian industry was not able to supply to arm, equip, and supply the some 15 million men who were sent into the war as well as the civilians. The misery of the working people was intensified by a growing shortage of food and the railroad network was inadequate. Moreover, mobilizations disrupted industrial and agricultural production. Quite often in the trenches the soldiers went hungry and lacke d equipments or munitions, sometimes even weapons. In comparing with any army in the previous war Russian casualties were greater. Behind the front, goods became scarce, prices skyrocketed, and by 1917 famine threatened even in the larger cities. Discontent became rife; also, it was attributed by many of the supposed treachery of Empress Alexandra and her circle, in which Grigory Yefimovich Rasputin- peasant monk had the dominant influence.  [5]  At the time when the Duma, protested against the inefficient conduct of the war and the arbitrary policies of the imperial government, the Czar-Emperor Nicholas II-and his ministers simply ignored it. The Collapse of the Romanov autocracy in March 1917 was one of the most spontaneous, leaderless, anonymous revolution of all timeà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ã‚  [6]   Back to the Sckocpol theory and main argument that the revolutions are not made, they come are emphasized in communist revolution. It includes all classical conditions of the social revolution such as: first of all is that the military competition is defeat, secondly inability to compete economically within an unevenly developing capitalist world economy also, inability to carry out reforms against the interests of strong landed upper class and in addition widespread peasant revolt without any control of it. All of these conditions of the state lead to the revolution. An examination of how the movement is/was organised, and of any practical and/or ethical implications of this. Mobilization is a process of increasing the readiness to act collectively. (William A. Gamson, The Strategy of Social protest) The absence of a constitution or clear conventions created conditions in which supporters and critics of absolutism claimed to offer the correct interpretation of the powers of the monarchy.  [7]  Peter first laid the foundation of the Imperial Russia with great response for the figures of the tsar. During the eighteenth century politics was on low level, it was poorly defined judicial, executive and administrative functions, and it resulted to the weak level of coordination and large reliance on the role of personality. Russian people believed that an inherently selfish power was typical of absolute monarchies with protected only the interests of the elite. During the nineteenth century overall efficiency of the government were improved by the vertically organised ministers as it become more modern and specialized. After the first revolution the tsars prerogatives were wide- ranging and remained powerful, that no bill could become a law without his signature. After the establishment of the Duma and couple reforms created political problems to the tsarist regime and many people start to believe that it was first step of the path travelled by the countries of the West. However, they do not have any opportunity to initiate the legislation. Even half of the Duma members were chosen by the tsar personally and State Council itself remained very sensitive to the tsar. By the mid to late nineteenth century increased the professionalism of bureaucratic seams to represent threat to the tsars regime through systematisation of the business and control of the flow of the information, let alone its specialized knowledge of areas. Such social changes began to have an increasingly powerful impact of the government. Also, the dynasty of Romanov become directly tied because Peter I established Russia as a great European Power. Educated elite began to show signs of dissatisfaction with the autocratic system of government. Even in the early eighteenth Decemb rists were claiming that Russian should adapt European economical models. In comparing with Bourbon France revolution similarities is clear visible with Romanov dynasty, as there was no turning back that aristocracy, took pride in the belongings to the great state. The problems of Domestic Challenges, itself was that society itself was not rich or modern enough. So, people were needed social-economical reforms such as the abolition of reform, inculcation of legal principles and industrialisation. According to the Machiavellis warning rule: if the necessity for reform comes in trouble times, you are too late for harsh measure; and mild ones will not help you, for they will considered as forces from you, and not one will be under any obligation to you from them.  [8]   After the February revolution in 1917 the government was quickly dispersed and autocracy collapsed. Two new bodies exercised political power, New Provisional Government and the Petrograd Soviet of Workers and Soldiers Deputies. Immediately deputies appointed a commission to cope with the problems of food supply for the people. However, railroad system, could not handle the simultaneous demands of the food supply for the cities and in the same time supply the fronts and addition to prove raw materials of the industries. On the first of March was accepted Order No 1 which stated that those soldiers and sailors who did not conflict with Soviet were to be elected for committees that would exercise exclusive control over all weapons.  [9]  Addition problem arise that the Russian financial situation by 1917 was bankrupt and Western Allies were willing to provide financial support for the Russia with condition to remain at war. In the same time revolt occurred in the cities and at the f ront, Provisional Government could not respond to the basic needs of the ordinary people. The question was not who should govern, it was rather whether national order could be re-established at all because Provisional Government could not make any fundamental changes. Population become more and more disgruntled with the Provisional Government. Peasants wanted mostly to be left alone to govern their own affairs, breakdown the discipline in the army and the spread of workers. People start to calling for peace, bread, land, and all power to the soviet. As a result on March 6 the Petrograd Soviet split with the Provisional Government of the question of war or peace. But also question was that only soviet could solve the problems of the workers and peasant and it were decisively molded by the Bolshevik propaganda following the April third the arrival in the Petrograd of Lenin. Lenin quickly becomes successful in his leadership and propaganda of the Bolshevik party and requirement of people itself. In addition, another famous revolutionary Leon Trotsky- a Commissar for War agreed with the Lenins policy and joined the Bolshevik Party. Also, credibility to the Bolshevik propaganda added by the Kerensky on June 16 when he orders an offensive that ended in a complete defeat and the virtual disorganization of the army. Discipline of the army broke down and millions of soldiers escape further fighting and try to take part in the division of the land. In the July was adopted a resolution for the abolition of the Duma forced by the Petrograd of Soviets. Also, congress of Soviets organized a demonstration of about 400,000. The resignation of the Kadet ministers lead to the 500,000 workers and sailors demonstration to denounced the government. The Bolshevik party put itself a head of the movement for the peace keeping. However, July demonstration shaped a wave of political reaction of the people. In addition Lenin was denounced as a paid agent of the Germany; Trotsky and others were arrested. Kerensky government did not prevail any economical condition of the country and as a result Bolshevik party start to grow up. At tha t time Kornilov decided to establish a military dictatorship in Petrograd but his army was dissolved before he reached the capital and he was arrested. And the Bolshevik party become to secure a majority in the Petrograd Soviet. Second important revolution occurred in October 10 after the Lenins policy for the opening for the second Congress of the Soviets. Later on October 24 to 25 under the direction of Trotsky soldiers, sailors, and armed workers stormed the Winter Palace, headquarters of the Provisional Government. Also in armed insurrection were involved tens of thousands of men and women. On the afternoon of 25 Trotsky announced the end of the Provisional Government. The second Congress of Soviets began its deliberation and as a result majority of the Menshevik and Socialist Revolutionaries delegates withdrew from the congress. Was made a lot of ratification of the land principles, national property become under the protection of local land committees and soviets. Second Congress of the Soviets also affirmed the rights of all citizens to cultivate land by their own. However, right from the start the Bolsheviks faced political opposition from the other socialist parties to their attempt to rule alone. O n March 3 in 1918 the New Government under the Bolshevik control signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk what ended Russians involvement in World War 1. But under the treaty that Russian should give up the territory of Ukraine, Finland, Poland and Baltic States. The Opposition to the Bolshevik Party erupted into civil war that lasted from 1918 until the late 1920. The strict control of the country was taken by the Lenin and the Russian Communist Party. Sailors revolt and workers strikes were quickly crushed. Lenin Established New Economic Policy to strengthen the country which actually has been drained by seven years of turmoil and economic decline. As a result of Revolutions in December on 30, 1992 was established the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and ethnic territories of the former Russian Empire. A critical analysis of the ways in which the revolutionary/social movement framed/is framing the issues of contention. The transformation of social issues into collective action frames does not occur by itself. It is a process in which social actors, media and members of a society jointly interpret, define and redefine states of affairs. Sidney Tarrow. Successful revolt strategy is based on values and goals of the collective action. Values motivate people and shape the components of action. From another hand, collective action can be interpreted as the emergence of trends; of the formation and consolidation of new values systems. That can be presented as social justice, human right and environmental preservation. According to the Ingleharts suggestion it is based on two assumptions and he defined it as the scarcity hypothesis hierarchy of the needs. In relation to the Russia revolution movement people needs were very basic. On the February 24 people were claiming for peace: Down with the war and Down with autocracy. In relation to the French revolution, it produced the first systematic attempts to reshape political culture around new forms of dress, holidays, public works, salutations and monuments.  [10]  As the revolution spread, so did its symbols. Central symbol of the February revolution become Square of the Uprising, demonstrated huge open space an ideal arena for a political meeting, and for the theatre of the Revolution.  [11]  Perhaps more important was a symbolic challenge: statue of Alexander III as a symbol of autocracy. On 26 of February number of workers was killed when the workers and soldiers came face to face. On the February 27 the revolution triumphed and regime of the Petrograd garrison went over to the people. More than 150,000 united workers and soldiers joined the revolution and took control of the city: as a result of revolt were nearly 1500 victims.  [12]  As Kniss (1996) notes, the interpretive elasticity varies among different type of symbols. The red flag become an emblem of the peoples struggle, embodying their anger and ideals, people were even ready to die for that symbol.  [13]  From the theoretical work of Erving Goffman (1974) has proved that symbolic aspects of collective action are v ery influential. Symbolic production enables us to attribute to events and behaviours of collective action. Gamson (1992) defined three central components to motivate collective actions: injustice, agency and identity frames. In October Revolution Vladimir Lenin used slogans as Peace, Land, Bread and famous one All power to the Soviets. The Great October revolution was more about the destroying rather than renew. Comparing with the French revolutionary festivals, the iconoclasm of the February Revolution obeyed the law of the purge. Russia revolutionary felt itself to be in one camp against the enemy. People wore red arm bands or tied red ribbons in their buttonholes to show their support for the revolutionaries. Even some of the cafà © displayed the following advertisement: Fellow-Citizens! In honour of the great days of freedom, I bid you all welcome. Come inside, and eat and drink to your hearts content.  [14]   The empirical evidence of actions demonstrates that people with post- material values are supporting new form of collective actions.  [15]  The Petrograd workers had long traditions of activism and memories of 1905 Revolution. Accept all theoretical implications of the culture and Action as cognitive proxies social movement activity largely consists of practices more directly linked to the symbolic production.  [16]  Also, in the self-organisation of the revolutionary crowd were very important flags and songs. The Menshevik A.E. Diubua recalled that a crowd of several hundred workers moved down Nevsky singing songs and carrying red flag.  [17]   To the parasites, to the dogs, to the rich! Yes and to the evil vampire- Tsar! Kill and destroy them the villainous swine! Light up the dawn of a new and better life! Another important aspect of Revolution symbolic is the changing of public and personal names. The new names reflected general symbols of emancipation. For examples old names of the Empress Catherine become called Free Russia. Cultural Environment are usually conceptualized as norms and values of the population. Rochon (1998) he suggested that cultural change and movements role in that change.  [18]  He ties social groupings as communities for new value perspectives. He tries to understand a balance of values, as a deep feature of culture that serves to integrate social life. Rochon argued that value are widely and deeply held and because of that culture changes is a contentious struggle. In addition, Marxist ideology to suggest that environmental urban crisis could be read as an outcome of the spread of mechanism of capitalist exploitation from the factory and the labour market to its surrounding community. The Leninist party can also be considered proof of Marxisms cultural domination model. According to the Lumley (1990) theory models of counter culture and political proposals such as that of the environmental lists, which has little in common with representation of a class nature, were accorded lit tle space in the development of the movements although they were also present. A critical analysis of the action forms used by the actors involved. We will either find a way or make one. Hannibal Social movement are best understood as clusters of contentious interactive performances of protest events.  [19]  Central to this is movement tactics such as strikes, riots, and violent incidents. According to the Tarrow (1998) he categorised form of protest as: violence, disruption and convention. Violence is the easiest kind of collective action that function of the interaction between movement tactics and policing. It can be used as a transforms the relations between challengers and authorities. Moreover, it is the major power in movement. However, in February revolution for the first point was not any violence. It can impress people and it also could limit the formation of movement because of restrains and frightens off sympathizers. Disruption is the archtypical expression of challenging groups.  [20]  People become scared of disruption no more than a threat of violence. They performance demonstrate their identity and reinforce their solidarity. Revolutionaries were trying to keep authority off balance and keep the public interest with possible opportunities of better life. The demonstration became the major means of the though which workers build and express solidarity. The spread of demonstration rapidly become known with it symbols. However, in repressive state as Russia demonstration regards as potential riots which actually mean it will lead to the savage repression as it was in 1905- Bloody Sunday. Back to the February revolution it was more likely to gain public approval. People start to act. In St Petersburg nearly every industrial enterprise had been shut down, people start to join the strikes. Moreover, Tarrow (1993) suggested that the increases in the rate and variety of form of collective action bring about increases in the number of organizations and other mobilization structures engaged in collective action. As an example the range of tactics used use in the US 1982 was reasonably for winning broad public support.  [21]  Back to the Russia Revolution it increased the capacity to disrupt routines. In addition, strength of revolution was the size of the movement. The civil right movement is always ability to mobilize large number of participant. According to the culture reasons majority of the people shared same believes and values. The revolution was made spontaneously without any leadership. But such king of movement could not be acted by own, it should be organised by strong leader. Even Provisional Government could not demand the society need and was withdrawn by the Bolshevik party leaded by Lenin. According to the Protest Tactics of Goodwin and Jasper (2007) tactics means doing what you can with what you have. Trotskys in the Revolution 1917 played important role in building up the Red Army, and without him the revolution would have been crushed. He was one of who agreed the Lenins ideology and entered party. Lenin himself, used the moment and launched his antiwar attack on the Government. He gets support from the masses and quickly revived their influence. A reflection on means and ends in relation to your case study, and on any ethical issues arising from its practices and/or its aims. We cannot think first and act afterwards. From the moment of birth we are immersed in action and can only fitfully guide it by taking thought. ALFRED NORTH WHITEHEAD Interesting question arising in relation to the ends and means, does the particular ends of the revolution justify the particular means of it? The man of action views the issues of means and ends in pragmatic and strategic terms. The fist points at the beginning arising about the possibility of various forms of actions. But the means and ends must coherence; immoral means cannot bring about moral ends. However, no one can predict any reliability how any collective action would interfere and response to injustice, oppression and violence. For the Russian population it was already impossible to find way of surviving. Rather than find method of struggle people choose to fight. But the means represent the ideal in the making; in the long run of history destructive means cannot bring about constructive ends.  [22]  Second point which Gandhi suggested is nonviolence: it contends that ones aim must never be to inflict injury upon the opponent. However, he also says that he did not mentioned truth in relation to the nonviolence as a World-force because simply truth cannot be expressed excepting by nonviolence. For a long time period people become tired of struggling and poverty. Gandhi mentioned that it is a goal and it is beautiful to have a method of struggle and it can be powerful social force. According to the Russia famous poetry Fyodor Ivanovich Tyutchev: Russia cannot be understood with the mind alone, No ordinary yardstick can span her greatness: She stands alone, unique In Russia, one can only believe. But people start to feel hate and anger, they become tired to believe. After the Bloody Sunday people were more than ready for the changes. Gandhi puts love of the first place of non violence and avoids external physical violence. But love stuff is next stepped to the anger and vice versa. At the point when person is exhausted he could have different range of emotions from crying to laughing. Even so, people would be willing to use nonviolence strategy, if there were possible circumstance. But violence strategy is more successful in the current conflict.  [23]  Moreover, against nonviolence strategy of love stuff difficult to understand if the person acting as not as human being, which king of acts should taken? I would say that at the moment when person using violence against person who acting as not human being, he losing his soul as well. According to the Martin Luther King If you are hit you must not hit back; you must rise to the heights of being able to accept blows without retaliating. That what he called suffering as a powerful social forceà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ man does not know how to handle it. A consideration of the actual or potential outcomes of the movement/revolution you have looked at. There are many debates about the exact time of the end of Revolution. The end of the Revolution came at the moment when the Communist party start to control most of the future USSR territory. The biggest outcome of the movement was the dramatic social changes in the in the Russian. Russian empire of capitalism, monarchy and church was replaced by the theoretically classes society equal comrades. The initial statement was that no one went hungry, and everyone could enjoy life through hard work. Also, significant outcome of the social revolution was development of large-scale modern enterprises and national economical development.  [24]  In addition, Russia Revolution led to the eventual emergency of Joseph Stalin and Cold War with the United States.  [25]   Nothing would happen without the initial support of the mass of Russian population. In relation to the social studies it is not the easy to identify particular movement actions as the cause of a specific outcome.  [26]  According to the Paul Burstein argue in the re

Universalizability and Philippine Supreme Court Cases :: Criminal Justice

Universalizability and Philippine Supreme Court Cases ABSTRACT: The requirement that legal reasoning be universalizable is so unquestioned as a legal doctrine that it is practically axiomatic. Recently, two Philippine Supreme Court cases have been decided in a manner that apparently dispenses with this requirement. I discuss these two cases in the light of the requirement. I conclude that the requirement, rather than being diminished by the two cases, has actually maintained its axiomatic status on the basis that the reasoning in the two cases is deficient: the first either for inequality in treatment or for lack of clear guidance, and the second for the failure to appear impartial. The requirement that judicial reasoning be universalizable, that the justifying reasons for a decision are to be articulated or at least must be capable of being articulated in the form of a universal norm under which the facts of the case are to be subsumed so as to entail logically the decision, (1) is an acknowledged formal legal principle indispensable to any sound theory of adjudication. Recently, two Philippine Supreme Court Decisions, Alonzo v. IAC (2) and Marcos v. Manglapus, (3) challenged the very indispensability of such a requirement. This paper will discuss the interaction between and effects of these two decisions on the requirement of universalizability, by determining whether the requirement is indeed seriously challenged by the two cases and, conversely, by assessing and analyzing these two cases in terms of the requirement. These two decisions resolved the issues in the two cases by creating exceptions for the unique circumstances attendant to the cases, thus apparently dispensing with the requirement. In particular, the Alonzo case held: "In fact, and this should be clearly stressed, we ourselves are not abandoning the Cojenero and Buttle doctrines. What we are doing is adopting an exception to the general rule, in view of the particular circumstances of the case." (4) In the Marcos case, reference was made to the special circumstances involving President Marcos thus: "This case is unique. It should not create a precedent, for the case of a dictator forced out of office and into exile after causing twenty years of political, economic and social havoc in the country and within the short space of three years seeks to return, is in a class by itself." (5) In discussing the interaction between and effects of these two decisions on the requirement of universalizability, the paper will first briefly explain the rationale behind the requirement. Universalizability and Philippine Supreme Court Cases :: Criminal Justice Universalizability and Philippine Supreme Court Cases ABSTRACT: The requirement that legal reasoning be universalizable is so unquestioned as a legal doctrine that it is practically axiomatic. Recently, two Philippine Supreme Court cases have been decided in a manner that apparently dispenses with this requirement. I discuss these two cases in the light of the requirement. I conclude that the requirement, rather than being diminished by the two cases, has actually maintained its axiomatic status on the basis that the reasoning in the two cases is deficient: the first either for inequality in treatment or for lack of clear guidance, and the second for the failure to appear impartial. The requirement that judicial reasoning be universalizable, that the justifying reasons for a decision are to be articulated or at least must be capable of being articulated in the form of a universal norm under which the facts of the case are to be subsumed so as to entail logically the decision, (1) is an acknowledged formal legal principle indispensable to any sound theory of adjudication. Recently, two Philippine Supreme Court Decisions, Alonzo v. IAC (2) and Marcos v. Manglapus, (3) challenged the very indispensability of such a requirement. This paper will discuss the interaction between and effects of these two decisions on the requirement of universalizability, by determining whether the requirement is indeed seriously challenged by the two cases and, conversely, by assessing and analyzing these two cases in terms of the requirement. These two decisions resolved the issues in the two cases by creating exceptions for the unique circumstances attendant to the cases, thus apparently dispensing with the requirement. In particular, the Alonzo case held: "In fact, and this should be clearly stressed, we ourselves are not abandoning the Cojenero and Buttle doctrines. What we are doing is adopting an exception to the general rule, in view of the particular circumstances of the case." (4) In the Marcos case, reference was made to the special circumstances involving President Marcos thus: "This case is unique. It should not create a precedent, for the case of a dictator forced out of office and into exile after causing twenty years of political, economic and social havoc in the country and within the short space of three years seeks to return, is in a class by itself." (5) In discussing the interaction between and effects of these two decisions on the requirement of universalizability, the paper will first briefly explain the rationale behind the requirement.

Shadow Kiss Chapter 10

Ten THE NEXT DAY, MY guardian duties with Christian resumed. Once again, I found my own life put on hold for someone else's. â€Å"How was your penance?† he asked as we walked across campus from his dorm. I stifled a yawn. I hadn't been able to sleep well last night, both because of my feelings for Dimitri and because of what Father Andrew had told me. Nonetheless, I kept a sharp eye out. This was the location where Stan had attacked us twice before, and besides, the guardians were sick and twisted enough to come after me on a day when I was so exhausted. â€Å"It was okay. The priest let us go early.† â€Å"Us?† â€Å"Dimitri came and helped me. I think he felt bad about me being stuck with that work.† â€Å"Either that or he has nothing else to do now that he's not doing your extra sessions.† â€Å"Maybe, but I doubt it. All in all, I guess it wasn't that bad a day.† Unless you considered learning about spiteful ghosts bad. â€Å"I had a great day,† said Christian, the smallest amount of smugness in his voice. I repressed the urge to roll my eyes. â€Å"Yeah, I know.† He and Lissa had taken advantage of their guardianless day to take advantage of each other. I supposed I should be glad they'd held off until Eddie and I weren't around, but in a lot of ways, it didn't matter. True, when I was awake, I could block out all of the details, but I still knew what was going on. A bit of the jealousy and anger I'd felt from the last time they'd been together returned. It was the same problem all over again: Lissa doing all the things I couldn't do. I was dying to go eat breakfast. I could smell French toast and hot maple syrup. Carbs wrapped in more carbs. Yum. But Christian wanted blood before we ate solid food, and his needs trumped mine. They come first. He'd apparently skipped his daily blood dose yesterday – probably to maximize his romantic time. The feeder room wasn't crowded, but we still had to wait. â€Å"Hey,† I said. â€Å"Do you know Brett Ozera? You're related, right?† After my encounter with Jill, I'd finally put some pieces together. Brett Ozera and Dane Zeklos had reminded me of how Brandon had looked the day of Stan's first attack. The disaster of that attack had made me completely forget about Brandon, but the coincidences here suddenly stirred my curiosity. All three had been beaten up. All three had been in denial. Christian nodded. â€Å"Yeah, in the way we're all kind of related. I don't know him that well – he's like a third or fourth cousin or something. His branch of the family hasn't had much to do with mine since †¦ well, you know.† â€Å"I heard something weird about him.† I then related what Jill had told me about Dane and Brett. â€Å"That's weird,† agreed Christian. â€Å"But people get in fights.† â€Å"Yeah, but there are some weird connections here. And royals aren't usually on the losing ends of fights – all three of these guys were.† â€Å"Well, maybe that's it. You know how it's been. A lot of royals are getting pissed off that non-royals want to change how guardians are assigned and learn to start fighting. That's the whole point of Jesse and Ralf's stupid little club. They want to make sure royals stay on top. Non-royals are probably getting just as pissed off and fighting back.† â€Å"So, what, some kind of vigilante is out making royals pay?† â€Å"Wouldn't be the weirdest thing that's happened around here,† he pointed out. â€Å"That's for damn sure,† I muttered. Christian's name was called, and he peered ahead. â€Å"Look at that,† he said happily. â€Å"Alice again.† â€Å"I don't get your fascination with her,† I observed as we approached the old feeder. â€Å"Lissa's always kind of excited to see her too. But Alice is nuts.† â€Å"I know,† he said. â€Å"That's what's so great.† Alice greeted us as Christian sat down beside her. I leaned against the wall, arms crossed over my chest. Feeling uppity, I said, â€Å"Alice, the scenery hasn't changed. It's exactly the same as last time.† She turned her dazed eyes on me. â€Å"Patience, Rose. You must be patient. And prepared. Are you prepared?† The switch in subject threw me a little. It was like talking to Jill, except less sane. â€Å"Um, prepared how? For the scenery?† In what had to be a prime moment of irony, she looked at me as though I were the one who was crazy. â€Å"Armed. Are you armed? You're going to protect us, aren't you?† I reached inside my coat and pulled out the practice stake I'd been given for the field experience. â€Å"Got you covered,† I said. She looked immensely relieved and apparently couldn't tell the difference between a real stake and a fake one. â€Å"Good,† she said. â€Å"Now we'll be safe.† â€Å"That's right,† said Christian. â€Å"With Rose armed, we have nothing to worry about. The Moroi world can rest easy.† Alice was oblivious to his sarcasm. â€Å"Yes. Well, nowhere is ever safe.† I concealed the stake again. â€Å"We're safe. We've got the best guardians in the world protecting us, not to mention the wards. Strigoi aren't getting in here.† I didn't add what I'd recently learned: that Strigoi could get humans to break the wards. Wards were invisible lines of power that were composed of all four elements. They were created when four Moroi, each one strong in a different element, walked around an area and laid the magic in a circle upon the ground, creating a protective border. Moroi magic was imbued with life, and a strong field of it kept out Strigoi, since they were devoid of life. So wards were frequently laid around Moroi dwellings. Tons of them were laid around this school. Since stakes were also imbued with all four elements, driving a stake through a ward line in the ground pierced the ward and canceled out the protective effect. This had never been much of a concern because Strigoi couldn't touch stakes. However, in some recent attacks, humans – who could touch stakes – had served Strigoi and broken some wards. We believed the Strigoi I'd killed had been the ringleaders in that group, but we still d idn't know for sure. Alice studied me closely with her cloudy eyes, almost as though she knew what I was thinking. â€Å"Nowhere is safe. Wards fade. Guardians die.† I glanced over at Christian, who shrugged in a sort of what did you expect from her? kind of way. â€Å"If you guys are done with your girl talk, can I eat now?† he asked. Alice was more than happy to comply; he was her first hit of the day. She soon forgot about wards or anything else and simply lost herself to the ecstasy of his bite. I forgot about wards too. I had a one-track mind, really: I still wanted to know if Mason had been real or not. The priest's frightening explanation aside, I had to admit Mason's visits hadn't been threatening, just scary. If he was out to get me, he was kind of doing a half-assed job of it. Once again, I started putting more stock in the stress-and-fatigue theory. â€Å"Now it's time for me to eat,† I said when Christian finished. I was pretty sure I could smell bacon now. That'd probably make Christian happy. He could wrap it around his French toast. We'd barely stepped out of the room when Lissa came running up to us, Eddie trailing behind. Excitement lit her face, though the feelings in the bond weren't exactly happy. â€Å"Did you hear?† she asked, a little breathless. â€Å"Hear what?† I asked. â€Å"You have to hurry – go pack your things. We're going to Victor's trial. Right now.† There'd been no warning at all about when Victor's trial would even occur, let alone that someone had apparently decided we could go. Christian and I exchanged brief, startled looks and then hurried off to his room to gather our things. Packing was a breeze. My bag was ready to go already, and Christian only took a minute to throw his together. In less than a half hour, we were out on the Academy's landing strip. Two private jets sat in attendance, one of which was fired up and waiting to go. A couple of Moroi hurried about, doing last-minute things with the plane and the runway. No one seemed to know what was going on. Lissa had simply been told that she, Christian, and I were going to testify and that Eddie could come along to continue his field experience. There'd been no explanation as to why things had changed, and a weird mix of eagerness and apprehension crackled around us. We all wanted to see Victor locked away for good, but now that we were actually faced with the reality of the trial and of seeing him – well, it was kind of scary. A few guardians lingered near the steps going up to the plane. I recognized them as the ones who had helped capture Victor. They were probably going to do double duty and serve as witnesses and as our protection. Dimitri hovered near the outskirts, and I hurried over to him. â€Å"I'm sorry,† I gulped out. â€Å"I'm so sorry.† He turned toward me, his face schooled to that perfect picture of neutrality that he was so good at. â€Å"Sorry for what?† â€Å"For all the horrible things I said yesterday. You did it – you really did it. You got them to let us go.† Despite my nervousness about seeing Victor, I was filled with elation. Dimitri had come through. I'd known all along that he really cared about me – this just proved it. If there hadn't been so many people around, I would have hugged him. Dimitri's face didn't change. â€Å"It wasn't me, Rose. I had nothing to do with it.† Alberta signaled that we could board, and he turned away to join the others. I stood frozen for a moment, watching him and trying to figure out what had happened. If he hadn't intervened, then why were we going? Lissa's diplomatic efforts had been shot down a while ago. Why the change of heart? My friends were already on board, so I hurried to catch up. As soon as I stepped into the cabin, a voice called to me. â€Å"Little dhampir! About time you got here.† I looked and saw Adrian waving, a drink in his hand. Great. We'd had to beg and plead to go along, yet Adrian had somehow just glided on in. Lissa and Christian were sitting together, so I joined Eddie in the hopes of staying away from Adrian. Eddie gave me the window seat. Adrian moved to the seat in front of us, though, and might as well have been sitting in our row, as often as he turned around to talk to me. His chatter and outrageous flirting indicated he'd been sipping cocktails long before the rest of us had come aboard. I kind of wished I'd had a few myself once we were airborne. A wicked headache set in almost immediately after liftoff, and I entertained a fantasy of vodka numbing the pain. â€Å"We're going to Court,† Adrian said. â€Å"Aren't you excited about it?† I closed my eyes and rubbed my temples. â€Å"About which one? The royal one or the legal one?† â€Å"The royal one. Did you bring a dress?† â€Å"Nobody told me to.† â€Å"So †¦ that's a ‘no.'† â€Å"Yes.† â€Å"Yes? I thought you meant no.† I opened one eye and glared. â€Å"I did mean no, and you know it. No, I did not bring a dress.† â€Å"We'll get you one,† he said loftily. â€Å"You're going to take me shopping? I'm going to go out on a limb and guess they won't consider you a reliable chaperone.† â€Å"Shopping? As if. There are tailors that live there. We'll get you something custom-made.† â€Å"We're not staying that long. And do I really need a dress for what we're doing there?† â€Å"No, I'd just kind of like to see you in one.† I sighed and leaned my head against the window. The pain in my skull was still throbbing. It was like the air was pressing in on me. Something flashed in my peripheral vision, and I turned in surprise, but there was nothing but stars outside the window. â€Å"Something black,† he continued. â€Å"Satin, I think†¦ maybe with lace trim. Do you like lace? Some women think it itches.† â€Å"Adrian.† It was like a hammer, a hammer inside and outside my head. â€Å"You could get a nice velvet trim too, though. That wouldn't itch.† â€Å"Adrian.† Even my eye sockets seemed to hurt. â€Å"And then a slit up the side to show off what great legs you have. It could go nearly to the hip and have this cute little bow – â€Å" â€Å"Adrian!† Something inside of me burst. â€Å"Will you shut the hell up for five seconds?† I yelled so loud that the pilot had probably heard me. Adrian had that rare look of astonishment on his face. Alberta, sitting across the aisle from Adrian, shot up in her seat. â€Å"Rose,† she exclaimed. â€Å"What's going on?† I gritted my teeth and rubbed my forehead. â€Å"I have the worst fucking headache in the world, and he won't shut up.† I didn't even realize I'd sworn in front of an instructor until several seconds later. From the other side of my field of vision, I thought I saw something else – another shadow darting through the plane, reminding me of black wings. Like a bat or a raven. I covered my eyes. There was nothing flying through the plane. â€Å"God, why won't it go away?† I expected Alberta to chastise me for the outburst, but instead, Christian spoke: â€Å"She hasn't eaten today. She was really hungry earlier.† I uncovered my eyes. Alberta's face was filled with concern, and Dimitri now hovered behind her. More shadowy shapes flitted across my vision. Most were indistinct, but I could have sworn I saw something that looked like a skull mixed in with the darkness. I blinked rapidly, and it all disappeared. Alberta turned to one of the flight attendants. â€Å"Can you get her something to eat? And find a painkiller?† â€Å"Where's it at?† Dimitri asked me. â€Å"The pain?† With all of this attention, my explosion suddenly seemed excessive. â€Å"It's a headache†¦I'm sure it'll go away†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Seeing his stern look, I pointed to the center of my forehead. â€Å"It's like something pushing on my skull. And there's pain kind of behind my eyes. I keep feeling like†¦well, it's like I've got something in my eye. I think I'm seeing a shadow or something. Then I blink and it's gone.† â€Å"Ah,† said Alberta. â€Å"That's a migraine symptom – having vision problems. It's called an aura. People sometimes get it before the headache sets in.† â€Å"An aura?† I asked, startled. I glanced up at Adrian. He was looking at me over the top of his seat, his long arms hanging over the back of it. â€Å"Not that kind,† he said, a small smile turning up his lips. â€Å"Same name. Like Court and court. Migraine auras are images and light you see when a migraine's coming on. They have nothing to do with the auras around people I see. But I tell you †¦ the aura I can see †¦ the one around you †¦ wow.† â€Å"Black?† â€Å"And then some. It's obvious even after all the drinks I've had. Never seen anything like it.† I didn't exactly know what to make of that, but then the flight attendant returned with a banana, a granola bar, and some ibuprofen. It was a far cry from French toast, but it sounded good on my empty stomach. I consumed it all and then propped a pillow up against the window. Closing my eyes, I rested my head and hoped I could sleep the headache off before we landed. Mercifully, everyone else stayed quiet. I had drifted off a little when I felt a slight touch on my arm. â€Å"Rose?† Opening my eyes, I peered at Lissa as she sat in Eddie's seat. Those bat-winged shapes flitted behind her, and my head still hurt. In those swirling shadows, I again saw what looked like a face, this time with a wide gaping mouth and eyes like fire. I flinched. â€Å"You're still in pain?† Lissa asked, peering at me. I blinked, and the face was gone. â€Å"Yeah, I – oh no.† I realized what she was going to do. â€Å"Don't do it. Don't waste it on me.† â€Å"It's easy,† she said. â€Å"It hardly fazes me.† â€Å"Yeah, but the more you use it†¦ the more it hurts you in the long run. Even if it's easy now.† â€Å"I'll worry about that later. Here.† She clasped my hand between hers and closed her eyes. Through our bond, I felt the magic welling up in her as she drew upon spirit's healing power. To her, magic felt warm and golden. I'd been healed before, and it always came through to me as varying temperatures: hot, then cold, then hot, etc. But this time, when she released the magic and sent it into me, I didn't feel anything except a very faint tingle. Her eyelids fluttered open. â€Å"Wh – what happened?† she asked. â€Å"Nothing,† I said. â€Å"The headache's still going strong.† â€Å"But I†¦Ã¢â‚¬  The confusion and shock on her face mirrored what I sensed in her. â€Å"I had it. I felt the magic. It worked.† â€Å"I don't know, Liss. It's okay, really. You haven't been off the meds that long, you know.† â€Å"Yeah, but I healed Eddie the other day without any problems. And Adrian,† she added dryly. He was hanging over the seat again, watching us intently. â€Å"Those were scrapes,† I said. â€Å"This is a five-alarm migraine we're talking about. Maybe you've got to build back up.† Lissa bit her lower lip. â€Å"You don't think the pills permanently hurt my magic, do you?† â€Å"Nah,† said Adrian, head tilted to the side. â€Å"You lit up like a supernova when you were summoning it. You had magic. I just don't think it had any effect on her.† â€Å"Why not?† she demanded. â€Å"Maybe she's got something you can't heal.† â€Å"A headache?† I asked in disbelief. He shrugged. â€Å"What do I look like, a doctor? I don't know. Just telling you what I saw.† I sighed and placed a hand on my forehead. â€Å"Well, I appreciate the help, Liss, and I appreciate your annoying commentary, Adrian. But I think sleep might be the best thing for now. Maybe it's stress or something.† Sure, why not? Stress was the answer to everything lately. Ghosts. Incurable headaches. Weird faces floating in the air. â€Å"Probably can't heal that.† â€Å"Maybe,† she said, sounding as though she took personal offense at me having something she couldn't fix. Inside her mind, though, her accusations were turned toward herself, not me. She worried she wasn't good enough. â€Å"It's okay,† I said soothingly. â€Å"You're just getting your stride back. Once you're up to full power, I'll go crack a rib or something so we can test it.† She groaned. â€Å"The horrible part is that I don't think you're joking.† After a quick squeeze of my hand, she stood up. â€Å"Sleep well.† She left, and I soon realized Eddie wasn't coming back. He'd taken a new seat so that I'd have more room. Appreciative, I fluffed and repositioned the pillow while stretching my legs out as best I could across the seats. A few more phantom clouds danced across my vision, and then I closed my eyes to sleep. I woke up later when the plane touched down, the sounds of its engines kicking into reverse startling me out of a deep sleep. To my relief, the headache was gone. So were the weird shapes floating around me. â€Å"Better?† Lissa asked when I stood up and yawned. I nodded. â€Å"Much. Better still if I can get some real food.† â€Å"Well,† she laughed, â€Å"somehow I doubt there's any shortage of food around here.† She was right. Glancing out the windows, I tried to get my first look at our surroundings. We'd made it. We were at the Moroi Royal Court.

Poverty and crime rates Essay

There are people in the world so hungry, that God cannot appear to them except in the form of bread† (Mahatma Gandhi). Poverty is being in a state that is extremely poor and basically inhabitable. The correlation between poverty rates and crime rates has been examined through many different perspectives and by many different people. The majority of people believe that crime rates are higher in more developed countries and lower crime rates in undeveloped countries. Personally, I believe the opposite that crime rates are higher in undeveloped countries and lower in developed countries. There are many factors that affect high crime rates in a deprived country. The factors that affect high crime rates the most are that people in a poor society can not afford what they wish, the crime rates are higher in poor countries because people are not well educated and lastly, the government of a developing country is not as strict compared to the government of a developed country. Therefore the crime rates are higher in an undeveloped country. There are many factors that affect crime rates the major one is poverty. Crime rates are higher in an undeveloped country rather than a developed country since people would tend to steal what they cannot afford. The first factor that would cause a person of a poor country to steal something is if they cannot afford what they want. For example, in Africa many people cannot even afford their personal and physical necessities. The small community of Africa cannot afford enough food to fill up their stomach for a single night and will therefore have to rob food for themselves and their family.. Another reason why people in a poor country would commit more crimes is since they cannot afford the luxuries that they desire. Even though luxuries are not a component of survival they still play an important role in self confidence. For example, Car theft is much more higher in South Africa compared to North America since the people in South Africa cannot afford the luxuries of Mercedes or Porsche and would therefore steal the expensive luxuries that they want to be equal to everyone else. Next, the people of lower income feel excluded from society since they feel that they do not â€Å"fit in† with the rest of the community. For example, if one is wearing bum company footwear and the rest of the people in the community are wearing Nike company footwear then the person whom is wearing the bum company footwear would feel excluded from the rest of the society. This would cause the person of lower income to steal the expensive footwear just so they don’t feel excluded and higher their self esteem. Another reason why people who cannot afford what they want is due to the impact of jealousy on the lower income community’s mind. For example, Kristopher Gutierrez beat one of his best friends after realizing that he had a relationship with his girlfriend Kristopher is charged for aggravated assault1. This shows that jealous rage can cause one to commit any crime for revenge. Crime rates are higher in countries with more poverty since people do not have proper education. Firstly, the education system in poor countries is more weak therefore people in those poor countries are not well educated and do not know what’s wrong and what’s right. For example, statistics show that 121 million children worldwide are out of education2. This shows that children whom are becoming uneducated by dropping out of school at such a young age are not able to realize what’s wrong and what’s right. These 121 children would not be able to pursue their future career and earn a respectable amount of money since they would not have knowledge about the opportunities that are available to them. This would cause the children to get involved into horrible thing such as theft and burglaries. Read more:  Essays About Crime Rate Increase Another reason that causes higher crime rates in a country is due to the weaker teachers in the poor country. The teachers have probably also committed crime in their life. This would cause the teachers with wrong knowledge to teach their students the same knowledge they have. For example, if a teacher has the knowledge that crime and theft is alright and acceptable this teacher would teach their students that theft and crime is acceptable then the students would go off thinking it’s okay and possibly even commit crimes. Another reason that affects higher crime rates in an uneducated country is due to the parents of the students that are also not well educated and are therefore not a good role model towards their children. The children learn these horrible things by their parents. Since each family has their own values the children consider these crimes to be acceptable. For example, the parents of a poor family would probably have to rob clothing for their children. When the children realize that their parents stole clothing for them they will follow their parents and do the same. Additionally, the government systems of poor countries are much less strict towards crimes. Such as, the police control officers don’t carry many weapons and devices since they cannot afford them. In Canada, the police officers carry many weapons around with them such as guns, knives and GPS systems compared to Africa police officers can’t carry many weapons around with them maybe only one and cannot afford to purchase GPS. This would cause the community to think that it is easy to get way with committing crimes. Also, the police would have less control over the criminal since the criminal would bribe the police officer with money and most commonly the police officer would fall into this. Another reason why a more undeveloped country with an easy going government system would commit more crimes is due to the laws and punishments which are not strict and the criminals would feel that the punishment is manageable. For example, in South African countries such as Botswana the government system is less strict compared to a developed country such as Canada. The laws in Botswana for crime is more easy going if you are caught speeding then you can bribe the officer for money although the law in Canada obviously does not allow you to bribe the officer. This proves that the laws in Botswana are much less strict in comparison to Canada. Another reason that affects crime rates in a poor country is due to the fact that people feel committing a crime is easy to deal with and the police force is less committed to their job since the officers know that they would not get in much trouble even if they do not perform their duty properly. The government is less strict. For example, the community of Botswana and Africa feel that it is easy to get away with theft. This makes theft a much more common aspect of their life since it is so easy to commit and so easy to deal with the punishments. If one commits a crime in Canada they feel guilty and very afraid of the horrible outcomes such as all of the punishments and years in prison they have to deal with. Therefore, the population of Canada would tend to commit fewer crimes in fear of the outcomes. In conclusion, the crime rates are higher in an undeveloped country and this is proven by many aspects. Firstly, since people cannot afford what they want. The people of some undeveloped countries cannot even afford the necessities for survival such as food. Also the people of an undeveloped country cannot afford the luxury that they desire they feel excluded from society which causes them to commit crimes to achieve what they desire and to â€Å"fit in† with everyone else. Secondly, in undeveloped countries the society is not well educated. The population that is suffering through poverty does not know what is wrong and what is right. Therefore commit crimes thinking it’s okay to do. The students don’t have a good role model to look up to since the teachers and parents have also committed crime in their past and the parents do not realize it’s unacceptable to commit a crime. Thirdly, since the government system is very weak and not so strict in comparison to the government system of a developed country. Due to the fact that the government system is not strict in a poor country the populations of that poor country feel that it is easy to get away with committing a crime. Also, since the police force is less committed to their duty they become bribed very easily especially with money. Additionally, since the laws and punishments of an undeveloped country are not strict the community commits crimes easily. Overall, it is proven that the crime rates are much higher in a more undeveloped country. Works Citied Bennett, William J. , John J. DiIulio, and John P. Walters. Body count: Mora; poverty–and how to win America’s war against crime an drugs. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996. Print. Ross, Sherwood. â€Å"OpEDNews- Page 2 of Article: Why Poverty Spreads Across America. † Opednews. com Progressive, Liberal United States and International News, Opinion, Op-Eds and Politics. N. p. , n. d. Web. 25 Sept. 2012. . Short, James F.. â€Å"Crime and Society. â€Å"Poverty, ethnicity, and violent crime. Boulder, Colo. : WestviewPress, 1997. 220-245. Print. Taylor, Blake. â€Å"Poverty & Crime – Fundamental Finance. † Fundamental Economics. N. p. ,n. d. Web. 30 Sept. 2012. . Poverty vs. Crime Rates Essay By: Mariam Mirza For:Mrs. Rowley.

Clerestory Windows in Architectural Design

Clerestory Windows in Architectural Design A clerestory window is a large window or series of small windows along the top of a structures wall, usually at or near the roof line. Clerestory windows are a type of fenestration or glass window placement found in both residential and commercial construction. A clerestory wall often rises above adjoining roofs. In a large building, like a gymnasium or train station, the windows will be positioned to allow light to illuminate a large interior space. A smaller home may have a band of narrow windows along the very top of a wall. Originally, the word clerestory (pronounced CLEAR-story) referred to the upper level of a church or cathedral. The Middle English word clerestorie means clear story, which describes how an entire story of height was cleared to bring natural light to sizable interiors. Designing With Clerestory Windows Designers who wish to maintain wall space and interior privacy AND keep a room well-lighted often use this type of window arrangement for both residential and commercial projects. It is one way to use architectural design to help your home out of the darkness. Clerestory windows are most often used to naturally illuminate (and often ventilate) large spaces such as sports arenas, transportation terminals, and gymnasiums. As modern sports stadiums and arenas became enclosed, with and without retractable roofing systems, the clerestory lens, as its called on the 2009 Cowboys Stadium, became more common. Early Christian Byzantine architecture featured this type of fenestration to shed overhead light into the massive spaces builders were beginning to construct. Romanesque- era designs expanded the technique as medieval basilicas achieved more grandeur from height. The architects of Gothic-era cathedrals made clerestories an art form. Some say it was  American architect Frank Lloyd Wright (1867-1959) who adapted that Gothic art form to residential architecture. Wright was an early promoter of natural light and ventilation, no doubt in response to working in the Chicago area during the height of Americas industrialization. By 1893 Wright had his prototype for the Prairie Style in the Winslow House, showing second-story windows under the enormous eave overhang. By 1908 Wright was still struggling with a perfectly beautiful design when he wrote: ...often I used to gloat over the beautiful buildings I could build if only it were unnecessary to cut holes in them.... The holes, of course, are the windows and doors. By the time Wright was marketing his Usonian homes, the clerestory windows had become an important part of both the interior design, as seen in the 1939 Rosenbaum house in Alabama, and the exterior design, as in the 1950 Zimmerman House in New Hampshire. The best way to light a house is Gods way - the natural way.... Wright wrote  in The Natural House, a 1954 classic book on American architecture. The best natural way, according to Wright, is to place the clerestory along the southern exposure of the structure. The clerestory window serves as a lantern to the house. More Definitions of Clerestory or Clearstory 1. An upper zone of wall pierced with windows that admit light to the center of a lofty room. 2. A window so placed. - Dictionary of Architecture and Construction The topmost windows of a church nave, those above the aisle roof, thus any high band of windows - G. E. Kidder Smith, FAIA A series of windows placed high on a wall. Evolved from the Gothic churches where the clerestory appeared above the aisle roofs. - John Milnes Baker, AIA Architectural Examples of Clerestory Windows Clerestory windows illuminate many of Frank Lloyd Wright-designed interior spaces, especially the Usonian home designs, including the Zimmerman House and the Toufic Kalil Home. In addition to adding clerestory windows to residential structures, Wright also used rows of glass in more traditional settings, such as his Unity Temple, Annunciation Greek Orthodox, and the original library, the Buckner Building, on the campus of Florida Southern College in Lakeland. For Wright, the clerestory window was a design choice that satisfied his aesthetic and philosophic ideals. Clerestory windows have become a mainstay of modern residential architecture. From the 1922 Schindler Chace house designed by the Austrian-born R. M. Schindler to the student designs of the Solar Decathlon competition, this type of fenestration is a popular and practical choice. Remember that this new way of design is centuries old. Look up at the great sacred places across the world. Heavenly light becomes part of the prayerful experience in synagogues, cathedrals, and mosques throughout the ages, from Byzantine to Gothic to Modern structures like architect Alvar Altos 1978 Church of the Assumption of Mary in Riola di Vergato,  Italy. As the world became industrialized, natural light from clerestory windows supplemented the gas and electric lighting of venues such as Grand Central Terminal in New York City. For a more modern transportation hub in Lower Manhattan, Spanish architect Santiago Calatrava returned to ancient architectural history, incorporating a modern oculus - a version of Romes Pantheon extreme clerestory - showing again that whats old is always new. A Selection of Clerestory Window Examples Dance Studio, Preserving Wall SpaceTurner Contemporary Gallery, David Chipperfield Architects, United KingdomKitchen, 1922 Schindler House, Los Angeles, CaliforniaKarl Kundert Medical Clinic, Frank Lloyd Wright, 1956, San Luis Obispo, CaliforniaGothic Exeter Cathedral, United KingdomItalian Byzantine Church of Saint Vitale in Ravenna, ItalySunlight Shining Into Grand Central Terminal, New York City Sources Frank Lloyd Wright On Architecture: Selected Writings (1894-1940), Frederick Gutheim, ed., Grossets Universal Library, 1941, p. 38Dictionary of Architecture and Construction, Cyril M. Harris, ed., McGraw- Hill, 1975, p. 108G. E. Kidder Smith, FAIA, Sourcebook of American Architecture, Princeton Architectural Press, 1996, p. 644.John Milnes Baker, AIA, American House Styles: A Concise Guide, Norton, 1994, p. 169Additional photo credits: Cowboy Stadium, Ronald Martinez/Getty Images (cropped); Winslow House, Raymond Boyd/ Getty Images (cropped); Alto Church, De Agostini/Getty Images (cropped); Zimmerman House, Jackie Craven

Entering vietnam essays

Entering vietnam essays Entering the Vietnam War Vietnam is a beautiful, highly varied country with a very long history of struggle for independence. For thousands of years, the vietnamese had fought to preserve their distinct language and culture against invaders by first repelling the Chinese, the Japanese, the French and then finally the US. Few arguments about the Vietnam war take into account all aspects of Vietnams two thousand year history of hard-fought existence. And that is what most people believe is the essence of the Vietnam tragedy. The Vietnam war began soon after the Geneva Conference provisionally divided, in 1954, Vietnam at the 17 North Lat. into the Demorcratic Republic of Vietnam, North Vietnam, and into the Republic of Vietnam, South Vietnam. In part, the war was a legacy of France's colonial rule, which ended in 1954 with the French army's catastrophic defeat at Dien Bien Phu and the acceptance of the Geneva Conference agreements. The United States and many anti-communists did not support the accords. The US thought that the political protocols of the accords gave too much power to the Vietnamese Communists. To prevent the south from being over taken by the communists the US created the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization, or SEATO. Elections scheduled for 1956 in South Vietnam for the reunification of Vietnam were canceled by President Ngo Dinh Diem. His action was denounced by Ho Chi Minh, since the Communists had expected to benefit from them. After 1956, Diem's government faced increasingly serious opposition from the Viet Cong, insurgents aided by North Vietnam. The Viet Cong became masters of the guerrilla tactics of North 2 Vietnam's Vo Nguyen Giap. Diem's army received U.S. advice and aid, but was unable to suppress the guerrillas, who established a political organization, the National Liberation Front (NLF) in 1960. The Unite...